Stochastic detection is an approach to sensing that relies on the observation of individual binding events between analyte molecules and a receptor. Stochastic sensors can be created by placing a single pore of nanometer dimensions in an insulating membrane and measuring voltage-driven ionic transport through the pore in the presence of analyte molecules. The frequency of occurrence of fluctuations in the current reveals the concentration of an analyte that binds within the pore. The identity of an analyte is revealed through its distinctive current signature, notably the duration and extent of current block (Braha, O., Walker, B., Cheley, S., Kasianowicz, J. J., Song, L., Gouaux, J. E., and Bayley, H. (1997) Chem. Biol. 4, 497-505; and Bayley, H., and Cremer, P. S. (2001) Nature 413, 226-230).
Engineered versions of the bacterial pore forming toxin α-hemolysin (α-HL) have been used for stochastic sensing of many classes of molecules (Bayley, H., and Cremer, P. S. (2001) Nature 413, 226-230; Shin, S., H., Luchian, T., Cheley, S., Braha, O., and Bayley, H. (2002) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41, 3707-3709; and Guan, X., Gu, L.-Q., Cheley, S., Braha, O., and Bayley, H. (2005) Chem. BioChem. 6, 1875-1881). In the course of these studies, it was found that attempts to engineer α-HL to bind small organic analytes directly can prove taxing, with rare examples of success (Guan and colleague, supra). Fortunately, a different strategy was discovered, which utilised non-covalently attached molecular adaptors, notably cyclodextrins (Gu, L.-Q., Braha, O., Conlan, S., Cheley, S., and Bayley, H. (1999) Nature 398, 686-690), but also cyclic peptides (Sanchez-Quesada, J., Ghadiri, M. R., Bayley, H., and Braha, O. (2000) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 11758-11766) and cucurbiturils (Braha, O., Webb, J., Gu, L.-Q., Kim, K., and Bayley, H. (2005) Chem. Phys. Chem 6, 889-892). Cyclodextrins become transiently lodged in the α-HL pore and produce a substantial but incomplete channel block. Organic analytes, which bind within the hydrophobic interiors of cyclodextrins, augment this block allowing analyte detection (Gu, L.-Q., Braha, O., Conlan, S., Cheley, S., and Bayley, H. (1999) Nature 398, 686-690).
There is currently a need for rapid and cheap DNA or RNA sequencing technologies across a wide range of applications. Existing technologies are slow and expensive mainly because they rely on amplification techniques to produce large volumes of nucleic acid and require a high quantity of specialist fluorescent chemicals for signal detection. Stochastic sensing has the potential to provide rapid and cheap DNA sequencing by reducing the quantity of nucleotide and reagents required.
Translocating homopolymer nucleic acid sequences can be distinguished by protein nanopores (for example Branton, D., Deamer, D. W., Marziali, A., Bayley, H., Benner, S. A., Butler, T., Di Ventra, M., Garaj, S., Hibbs, A., Huang, X., et al. (2008) Nature Biotechnology 26, 1146-1153). The transition between two homopolymer sequences within a translocating single RNA strand can also be observed (Akeson, M., Branton, D., Kasianowicz, J. J., Brandin, E., & Deamer, D. W. (1999) Biophys. J. 77, 3227-3233). Individual base pairs at the end of an immobilized DNA strand can also be identified within a nanopore (Winters-Hilt, S., Vercoutere, W., DeGuzman, V. S., Deamer, D., Akeson, M., & Haussler, D. (2003) Biophys. J. 84, 967-976), but it is not clear how this might be adapted for sequencing. Recently, individual modified nucleotide bases have been observed “on the fly” (Mitchell, N. & Howorka, S. (2008) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 47, 5565-5568), but these structures were very bulky. There is currently no known method for sequencing heteropolymeric nucleic acid sequences using a nanopore.